Qualitative Analysis Essays - Analytical Chemistry, Precipitation

Qualitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis Introduction: Qualitative analysis is used in the determination of the identity of a substance. It is different from quantitative analysis, which deals with the determination of the amount of a substance. In this experiment, qualitative analysis techniques are used to determine whether or not a sample contains a certain ion. When using this method, an unknown and a reactant are mixed. The result of the reaction leads to a conclusion about the presence or absence of certain ions in the unknown. Many ions react in similar ways, and although the addition of one reagent to an unknown may not identify the ion, it limits the possibilities as to what the ion could be. A sequence of reactions used to analyze a sample is called a scheme, and it usually requires a large number of reagents and separation steps. For this experiment, the unknown may contain anywhere from 2 to all of the following cations and anions: Cations Anions Ag+ Cl- Ba2+ SO42- Fe3+ PO43- Cu2+ Cr3+ The following reagents are used to identify the ions: 1M H2SO4 2M HCl 2M NH4OH (labeled as NH4+) 2M NaOH .1M Ba(NO3)2 (labeled as .1M Ba2+) .1M AgNO3 (labeled as .1M Ag+) The first four are used to identify the cations, and the last two, used in conjunction with the first four, are used to identify the anions. The identification of the ions is mainly based on solubilities. This means that something must be known about the solubility characteristics of the different ions in the presence of the available reagents. The point of the first part of the experiment is to learn which reagents cause the ions to form precipitates, and which reagents dissolve the precipitates formed by the ions. This information is used to make the flow charts for the identification on the unknown ions. For example, it is important to know that a certain reagent will dissolve the precipitate formed by one ion, while it will not dissolve the precipitate formed by another ion. This can be used to distinguish between two different precipitates present in a solution, or to confirm which ion formed the precipitate and therefore was present in the solution. When carrying out the reactions, avoid adding an excess of reagent to the solution. This is because some precipitates redissolve in an excess of the reagent. Therefore, in cases where one drop of reagent produces a precipitate, 3 or more drops could completely dissolve the precipitate without it ever being visible to the eye. This would cause a large error in the scheme developed to identify the unknown ions. Experimental: The first part of the experiment consists of reacting the cations and anions with the reagents in order to see what the reaction will result in (precipitate or no precipitate). The cations were each reacted with the first four reagents listed in the introduction (H2SO4, HCl, NH4+, and NaOH). Then, the anions were each reacted with Ba2+ and Ag+. This was done by placing 2 drops of the ion in the test tube and then adding 2 drops of reagent. Each cation was reacted with each of the 4 reagents before moving on to the next cation to be tested. Prior to performing the reactions, a chart was made like the one in the data and calculations section. As each reaction was performed, the chart was filled in with the observation of what happened. If there was no change, NR was written in the chart for ?no reaction.? If a precipitate formed, the color of the precipitate was written in the chart. If there was no precipitate but there was a color change in the solution, that was also recorded. As each reaction was carried out, it was sometimes difficult to determine whether a precipitate formed or not. If there was uncertainty, the test tubes had to be placed into the centrifuge in order to separate the precipitates from the solution. There are some very important things to remember when using the centrifuge. First, when tubes are placed in the centrifuge, a tube with an approximately equal volume of solution should be placed exactly opposite each sample tube to counterbalance it (use a test tube filled with an equivalent amount of water if necessary). Second, the centrifuge should come to a stop before it is opened and the test

Free Essays on Boyles Law

Boyle’s law states: ‘If the temperature remains constant, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pessure. Through the conduction of this prac, this was found to be true. The pressure inside the syringe had to increase as the volume decreased because the molecules inside had less space to collide with one another and the wall. Therefore as the molecules had less volume to move around in, they would be colliding more often with eachother and the wall, increasing the pressure inside the syringe. It is therefore correct to say that : Some assumptions were made when conducting this prac. They include; (1)that temperature remained constant throughout the course of the prac and so the atmospheric pressure remained constant, (2)that all the equipment used were free of faults and completely efficient. The assumptions made in the prac played a major role because if the assumptions were not true at the time, this would mean that the results collected are not entirely accurate. Especially when considering that there was human error also involved, this would have played a part in the data collected. There were a few problems that were found when conducting the prac. The first problem encountered was that due to the syringe used not having mL calibrations, the measurements had to be found using a ruler which at times had to be held out atleast 5 to 10 cm out infront of the syringe. This was because of the platform block and books depressed too much to be able to fit the ruler up against the syringe. Therefore, the person holding the ruler also had to read the depression when the ruler was held out a fair distance away. The error that could have resulted from this would be that the reader because the ruler was held up in the air, the reader’s arm could have moved slightly down or up while the measurements were read. Also because different people made the measurment... Free Essays on Boyle's Law Free Essays on Boyle's Law Boyle’s law states: ‘If the temperature remains constant, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pessure. Through the conduction of this prac, this was found to be true. The pressure inside the syringe had to increase as the volume decreased because the molecules inside had less space to collide with one another and the wall. Therefore as the molecules had less volume to move around in, they would be colliding more often with eachother and the wall, increasing the pressure inside the syringe. It is therefore correct to say that : Some assumptions were made when conducting this prac. They include; (1)that temperature remained constant throughout the course of the prac and so the atmospheric pressure remained constant, (2)that all the equipment used were free of faults and completely efficient. The assumptions made in the prac played a major role because if the assumptions were not true at the time, this would mean that the results collected are not entirely accurate. Especially when considering that there was human error also involved, this would have played a part in the data collected. There were a few problems that were found when conducting the prac. The first problem encountered was that due to the syringe used not having mL calibrations, the measurements had to be found using a ruler which at times had to be held out atleast 5 to 10 cm out infront of the syringe. This was because of the platform block and books depressed too much to be able to fit the ruler up against the syringe. Therefore, the person holding the ruler also had to read the depression when the ruler was held out a fair distance away. The error that could have resulted from this would be that the reader because the ruler was held up in the air, the reader’s arm could have moved slightly down or up while the measurements were read. Also because different people made the measurment...

The Family Geometridae (Moths, Inchworms, and Loopers)

The Family Geometridae (Moths, Inchworms, and Loopers) Inchworm, inchworm, measuring the marigolds†¦ That classic childrens song refers to the larvae of the geometer moths. The family name Geometridae comes from the Greek geo, meaning earth, and metron, meaning measure. These forest caterpillars serve as an important source of food for birds. All About Geometer Moths Geometer moths may be easiest to identify in the larval stage, thanks to their unusual appearance. The caterpillars bear just two or three pairs of prolegs near their hind ends, instead of the five pairs found in most butterfly or moth larvae. With no legs in the middle section of its body, a Geometer moth caterpillar moves in a looping fashion. It anchors itself with the rear prolegs, extends its body forward, and then pulls its hind end up to meet its front end. Thanks to this method of locomotion, these caterpillars go by various nicknames, including inchworms, spanworms, loopers, and measuring worms. Adult geometer moths vary from small to medium in size, with slender bodies and broad wings sometimes decorated with thin, wavy lines. Some species are sexually dimorphic. Females in a few species lack wings entirely. In this family, the tympanal organs are located on the abdomen. Nearly all geometer moths fly at night and are attracted to lights. For those who enjoy confirming IDs using wing venation characteristics, take a close look at the subcostal vein (Sc) of the hindwing. In Geometrids, it bends sharply toward the base. Examine the cubitus of the forewing, and you should find it appears to divide into three branches if youve found a specimen from this family. Classification of Geometer Moths Kingdom – AnimaliaPhylum – ArthropodaClass – InsectaOrder – LepidopteraFamily - Geometridae The Geometer Moth Diet Geometer moth larvae feed on plants, with most species preferring woody trees or shrubs over herbaceous plants. Some cause significant forest defoliation. The Geometer Life Cycle All geometer moths undergo complete metamorphosis with four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Geometrid eggs can be laid singly or in groups, varying according to species. Most geometer moths overwinter in the pupal stage, though some do so as eggs or caterpillars. A few spend winter as eggs or larvae instead. Special Behaviors and Defenses of Geometer Moths Many geometer moth larvae bear cryptic markings that resemble plant parts. When threatened, these inchworms may stand erect, extending their bodies straight outward from the branch or stem theyre gripping, to mimic a twig or leaf petiole. David Wagner notes, in Caterpillars of Eastern North America, that their body color and form can be influenced by diet as well as the lighting of a given caterpillars surroundings. Range and Distribution of Geometer Moths The family Geometridae is the second largest among all the butterflies and moths, with about 35,000 species worldwide. Over 1,400 species occur in just the U.S. and Canada. Geometer moths live in vegetated habitats, especially those with woody plants available, and have a wide distribution throughout the world.

Answer Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Answer Questions - Essay Example There is hope in her revelation, but she says it as explained to her by Jesus. Both revelations and experiences preach the love of God, and the need to have a strong belief in him. Perpertua’s revelation shows God’s love and power, she saw a sign of victory over the devil. Julian’s revelations are also explanations of God’s love. She explains that irrespective of suffering caused by sin, God has a reason for it, and that reason is love. In one of her revelations, she explains how God loves us, and HE knows it is not our fault to sin, but he knows that sin brings pain, and so warns his people against sinning, but all is well for people will rejoice when they will understand the purpose of sin. They both understand human nature as having the body different from the soul and the spirituality of human beings. The body is considered the weak feature which leads humans to sin. St. Augustine for example, indicates that the sins committed by humans are of the flesh, but they corrupt the soul. Paul also indicates that flesh is the weak and powerless feature, therefore vulnerable to sin. Transformation in the human heart and soul comes from interaction between the features of human nature. Pauls believes that living by the Spirit is living a life free of sin. Augustine considers himself, a fully grown person spiritually, for he was no longer driven by ambition which was accompanied by â€Å"heavy servitude in the hope of wealth and reputation† They include; the excessive adoration of saints, corruption within the church, the justification that one must be saved through the church and faith, and the low intellectual and moral standards of the ordained priests, and that the scripture and tradition are of the same inspiration in Christianity. The prologue describes Jesus the person, and his ministry. In his interaction with Nicodemus, Jesus is shown as the son of God, and the teacher. The son of God is through

Development of European energy market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Development of European energy market - Essay Example Power generation, its trade and supply are opened to competition. However, network activities such as lower voltage distribution and high voltage transmission are still regulated by national monopoly. The liberalization started as a result of Electricity Market Directive of 1996. By the year 2000 most of the member states implemented the liberalization package. But some members especially France and Germany did not agree with these policies (Prospects for the internal gas and electricity, 2007). The Directive of 1996 was updated later, in the year 2003. The legislation ensured security of supply, efficient operation of power generation plants, efficient network access, access to storage, and transparency in the dealings of all member countries and thus facilitated a fully open energy market to all member countries. The industrial markets were opened up for competition by July 2004. By 1st July 2007, all the household users also had access to the open market and both industrial and ho usehold customers could select a provider of their own choice in the competitive market. This resulted in price reduction, increase of reliability and better quality service to all customers. Based on the legislation in 2003, national regulatory bodies were set up in each country to oversee the monopolies and European Regulators Group for Electricity and Gas (ERGEG) was set up to give advice to the European Commission to implement liberalization package more effectively (Liberalising the EU energy sector, 2009). European Commission conducted an inquiry in the market in January 2007 to study the nature and effect of open market and found that the structure of the market is still the same as old monopoly structure. It was dominated by companies which had both power generation as well as its transmission under their hold and therefore could control the prices. They prevented the entry of new companies into the market. This became one of the biggest obstacles for the complete impletion of liberalization package (Talus, 2008). Other major issues in the field, which still needed attention, are large-scale investments to set up more power generation plants and to increase the transmission capacity and the integration of overall electricity system. The third package of proposal for energy sector legislation is presently under discussion and this involves updating of the directives on electricity and gas, regulations of cross-border trade of electricity and gas and the establishment of a Cooperative Agency for Regulators. The key factors in the proposal, which was published on 19th September 2007, are the following (A competitive market, 2009): According to this proposal in order to ensure better competition the energy production sector has to be separated from the supply section. This would facilitate easy access to the market for competition. The proposal has put forward two options for the companies for this procedure. One is ownership unbundling in which the compan ies that deal with both power generation and its transmission has to sell part of its assets.  

Economic Systems Essay Example for Free

Economic Systems Essay Socialism Socialism is an economic system where all the economic decisions are made by the government or a central authority. There will be no private property rights since the government officially owns all resources. It is also known as a command economy or a planned system. Socialist economics refers to the economic theories, practices, and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems. A socialist economy is based on some form of social ownership, which includes varieties of public ownership and independent cooperatives, over the means of production, wherein production is carried out to directly produce use-value sometimes, but not always, coordinated through economic planning and a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind or a direct measure of labor-time. The term socialist economics may also be applied to analysis of former and existing economic systems that call themselves socialist, such as the works of Hungarian economist Jà ¡nos Kornai. Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought, most notably Marxian economics, institutional economics, evolutionary economics and neoclassical economics. Early socialism, like Ricardian socialism, was based on classical economics. During the 20th century, proposals and models for planned economies and market socialism were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics. look more:  what is the basic economic problem essay Characteristics 1 Public ownership of resources All the resources are owned and operated by the state or the government in the interest of society as a whole. This is to ensure equal opportunity of all citizens regardless of their income. Public ownership also aims to fully utilize the country’s resources. 2 Central planning authority The central authority is responsible for making economic decisions for society. The authority plans and allocates resources between current consumption and investment for the future. 3 Price mechanism of lesser importance Socialism gives less importance to market forces. Prices are fixed by the government and not determined by demand and supply. Private profits are not allowed and public interest is emphasized in the command economy. 4 Central control and ownership A socialist economy is a fully planned economy where the government intervenes in all aspects of economic activity. The government controls production, consumption, and the distribution of goods and services. Merits of Socialism 1 Production according to basic needs Production in a socialist economy is mainly directed at producing the basic needs of the people such as food, clothing and building materials. It is not determined by the purchasing power of the rich in society. The phenomenon of the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer does not exist in the socialist economy. 2 Equal distribution of income and wealth There is no difference between the rich and the poor. This system provides equal opportunity for all citizens in earning an income. Wealth is also equally distributed since private enterprise is limited 3 Better allocation of resourses Under the socialist system, the planning authority will allocate resources between current consumption and future investment. 4 No serious unemployment or recession/ inflation The unemployment rate and inflation are usually taken care of by the government to ensure economic stability in the country. 5 Rapid economic development In a socialism system, the economy grows faster. The main factors responsible for the rapic economic growth are the full utilization of resources, planning and quick decisions. 6 Social welfare The government will provide all citizens of the country with full social security benefits such as pension, accident benefits and others. Since the government is concerned, labour dispute and wastage of resources do not exist in a socialism system. Economic Decisions in a Socialistic System What to produce In Socialism, planning authorities decide what to produce. The Central Planning Authority will collect detailed statistics on the resource availability in the country and link it with national priorities. If the planning authority has a choice of producing computers using more labour or more machinery. How to produce The Central Planning Authority also decided on the techniques to be used in the production of different goods and services. The choice is between traditional and modern technique of production. For example, the planning authority has a choice of producing computers using more labour or more machinery. For whom to produce The distribution of the national product is decided by the Central Planning Authority. The distribution of various commodities among citizens is done through a set of administred fixwd processes. Necessity goods are fixed at lower prices, and luxury goods at higher prices. The purpose of these fixed prices is to reduce inequalities in the distribution of income. Demerits of Socialism 1 Lacks of incentives and initative by individuals Individuals have no profit motive. This will lead to economic inefficiency since jobs are provided by the government and individuals are not motivated to work harder. 2 Loss of economic freedom and consumer sovereignty Under a socialist economy, the central planning authority or the government directs all economic activity. There is no choice given to the consumer and they accept whatever public enterprise produce. There is little variety in the goods and services produced and availability is restricted. Limited private organizations exist in a socialist economy. 3 Absence of competition Since there are limited private enterprises, less research and development (RD) activities are carried out. This results in low quality products since there is no competition. Socialist economies in theory Robin Hahnel and Michael Albert identify five economic models within the rubric of socialist economics * Public Enterprise Centrally Planned Economy in which all property is owned by the State and all key economic decisions are made centrally by the State, the former Soviet Union. * Public Enterprise State-Managed Market Economy, one form of market socialism which attempts to use the price mechanism to increase economic efficiency, while all decisive productive assets remain in the ownership of the state, e.g. socialist market economy in China after reform. * A mixed economy, where public and private ownership are mixed, and where industrial planning is ultimately subordinate to market allocation, the model generally adopted by social democrats e.g. in twentieth century Sweden. * Public Enterprise Employee Managed Market Economies, another form of market socialism in which publicly owned, employee-managed production units engage in free market exchange of goods and services with one another as well as with final consumers, e.g. mid twentieth century Yugoslavia, Two more theoretical models are Prabhat Ranjan Sarkars Progressive Utilization Theory and Economic democracy. * Public Enterprise Participatory Planning, an economy featuring social ownership of the means of production with allocation based on an integration of decentralized democratic planning, e.g. stateless communism, libertarian socialism. An incipient historical forebear is that of Catalonia during the Spanish revolution. More developed theoretical models include those of Karl Polanyi, Participatory Economics and the negotiated coordination model of Pat Devine, as well as in Cornelius Castoriadiss pamphlet Workers Councils and the Economics of a Self-Managed Society. Additionally, Jà ¡nos Kornai identifies five distinct classifications for socialism: * Classical / Marxist conception, where socialism is a stage of economic development in which wage labour, private property in the means of production and monetary relations have been made redundant through the development of the productive forces, so that capital accumulation has been superseded by economic planning. Economic planning in this definition means conscious allocation of economic inputs and the means of production by the associated producers to directly maximise use-values as opposed to exchange-values, in contrast to the anarchy of production of capitalism. * Walrasian / Market Socialist which defines socialism as public-ownership or cooperative-enterprises in a market economy, with prices for producer goods set through a trial-and-error method by a central planning board. In this view, socialism is defined in terms of de jure public property rights over major enterprises. * Leninist conception, which includes a form of political organisation based on control of the means of production and government by a single political party apparatus that claims to act in the interest of the working class, and an ideology hostile toward markets and political dissent, with coordination of economic activity through centralised economic planning (a command economy). * Social Democratic concept, based on the capitalist mode of production, which defines socialism as a set of values rather than a specific type of social and economic organisation. It includes unconditional support for parliamentary democracy, gradual and reformist attempts to establish socialism, and support for socially progressive causes. Social democrats are not opposed to the market or private property; instead they try to ameliorate the effects of capitalism through a welfare state, which relies on the market as the fundamental coordinating entity in the economy and a degree of public ownership/public provision of public goods in an economy otherwise dominated by private enterprise. * East Asian model, or socialist market economy, based on a largely free-market, capital accumulation for profit and substantial private ownership along with state-ownership of strategic industries monopolised by a single political party. Jà ¡nos Kornai ultimately leaves the classification of this model (as either socialist or capitalist) to the reader.[16] What are the disadvantages and advantages of socialism? Advantages of Socialism * In environments with plentiful resources, socialism provides all members with their survival needs, creating a stable social environment. * Members that cannot participate economically due to disabilities, age, or periods of poor health can still impart wisdom, emotional support and continuity of experience to the system. * Freedom from work provides opportunity for some societal members to explore non-economically-productive pursuits, such as pure science, math and non-popular arts. Disadvantages of Socialism * Since there is no culling and no economic advantage to working harder, socialistic systems provide no inherent incentive to participate. This makes socialism internally unstable. * Due to a lack of incentives, socialistic systems tend not to be competitive, making them externally unstable. * In times of plenty, immigrants are drawn to the free resources offered by socialistic systems, while potentially adding nothing economically productive. * In times of scarcity, resentment of non-economically-productive members of society increases, causing a destabilizing effect on the society and economy History of socialist economic thought Values of socialism have roots in pre-capitalist institutions such as the religious communes, reciprocal obligations, and communal charity of Mediaeval Europe, the development of its economic theory primarily reflects and responds to the monumental changes brought about by the dissolution of feudalism and the emergence of specifically capitalist social relations. As such it is commonly regarded as a movement belonging to the modern era. Many socialists have considered their advocacy as the preservation and extension of the radical humanist ideas expressed in Enlightenment doctrine such as Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Discourse on Inequality, Wilhelm von Humboldts Limits of State Action, or Immanuel Kants insistent defense of the French Revolution. Capitalism appeared in mature form as a result of the problems raised when an industrial factory system requiring long-term investment and entailing corresponding risks was introduced into an internationalized commercial (mercantilist) framework. Historically speaking, the most pressing needs of this new system were an assured supply of the elements of industry – land, elaborate machinery, and labour – and these imperatives led to the commodification of these elements. According to influential socialist economic historian Karl Polanyis classic account, the forceful transformation of land, money and especially labour into commodities to be allocated by an autonomous market mechanism was an alien and inhuman rupture of the pre-existing social fabric. Marx had viewed the process in a similar light, referring to it as part of the process of primitive accumulation whereby enough initial capital is amassed to begin capitalist production. The dislocation that Polyani and others describe, triggered natural counter-movements in efforts to re-embed the economy in society. These counter-movements, that included, for example, the Luddite rebellions, are the incipient socialist movements. Over time such movements gave birth to or acquired an array of intellectual defenders who attempted to develop their ideas in theory. As Polanyi noted, these counter-movements were mostly reactive and therefore not full-fledged socialist movements. Some demands went no further than a wish to mitigate the capitalist markets worst effects. Later, a full socialist program developed, arguing for systemic transformation. Its theorists believed that even if markets and private property could be tamed so as not to be excessively exploitative, or crises could be effectively mitigated, capitalist social relations would remain significantly unjust and anti-democratic, suppressing universal human needs for fulfilling, empowering and creative work, diversity and solidarity. Within this context socialism has undergone four periods: the first in the 19th century was a period of utopian visions (1780s-1850s); then occurred the rise of revolutionary socialist and Communist movements in the 19th century as the primary opposition to the rise of corporations and industrialization (1830–1916); the polarisation of socialism around the question of the Soviet Union, and adoption of socialist or social democratic policies in response (1916–1989) and the response of socialism in the neo-liberal era (1990- ). As socialism developed, so did the socialist system of economics. Utopian socialism The first theories which came to hold the term socialism began to be formulated in the late 18th century, and were termed socialism early in the 19th century. The central beliefs of the socialism of this period rested on the exploitation of those who labored by those who owned capital or rented land and housing. The abject misery, poverty and disease to which laboring classes seemed destined was the inspiration for a series of schools of thought which argued that life under a class of masters, or capitalists as they were then becoming to be called, would consist of working classes being driven down to subsistence wages. Socialist ideas found expression in utopian movements, which often formed agricultural communes aimed at being self-sufficient on the land. These included many religious movements, such as the Shakers in America. Utopian socialism had little to offer in terms of a systematic theory of economic phenomena. In theory, economic problems were dissolved by a utopian society which had transcended material scarcity. In practice, small communities with a common spirit could sometimes resolve allocation problems. Socialism and classical political economy The first organized theories of socialist economics were significantly impacted by classical economic theory, including elements in Adam Smith, Robert Malthus and David Ricardo. In Smith there is a conception of a common good not provided by the market, a class analysis, a concern for the dehumanizing aspects of the factory system, and the concept of rent as being unproductive. Ricardo argued that the renting class was parasitic. This, and the possibility of a general glut, an over accumulation of capital to produce goods for sale rather than for use, became the foundation of a rising critique of the concept that free markets with competition would be sufficient to prevent disastrous downturns in the economy, and whether the need for expansion would inevitably lead to war. Socialist political economy before Marx Charles Fourier, influential early French socialist thinker A key early socialist theorist of political economy was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. He was the most well-known of nineteenth century mutualist theorists and the first thinker to refer to himself as an anarchist. Others were: Technocrats like Henri de Saint Simon, agrarian radicals like Thomas Spence, William Ogilvie and William Cobbett; anti-capitalists like Thomas Hodgskin; communitarian and utopian socialists like Robert Owen, William Thompson and Charles Fourier; anti-market socialists like John Gray and John Francis Bray; the Christian mutualist William Batchelder Greene; as well as the theorists of the Chartist movement and early proponents of syndicalism. The first advocates of socialism promoted social leveling in order to create a meritocratic or technocratic society based upon individual talent. Count Henri de Saint-Simon was the first individual to coin the term socialism. Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology, which led him to advocate a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and which would be based upon equal opportunities. Simon advocated a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work. This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organized economy based on planning and geared towards large-scale scientific and material progress, which embodied a desire for a semi-planned economy. Other early socialist thinkers were influenced by the classical economists. The Ricardian socialists, such as Thomas Hodgskin and Charles Hall, were based on the work of David Ricardo and reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated producer prices when those commodities were in elastic supply, and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labor. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value. Das Kapital Karl Marx employed systematic analysis in an ambitious attempt to elucidate capitalisms contradictory laws of motion, as well as to expose the specific mechanisms by which it exploits and alienates. He radically modified classical political economic theories. Notably, the labor theory of value that had been worked upon by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, was transformed into his characteristic law of value and used for the purpose of revealing how commodity fetishism obscures the reality of capitalist society. His approach, which Engels would call scientific socialism, would stand as the branching point in economic theory: in one direction went those who rejected the capitalist system as fundamentally anti-social, arguing that it could never be harnessed to effectively realize the fullest development of human potentialities wherein the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.. Das Kapital is one of the many famous incomplete works of economic theory: Marx had planned four volumes, completed two, and left his collaborator Engels to complete the third. In many ways the work is modelled on Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations, seeking to be a comprehensive logical description of production, consumption and finance in relation to morality and the state. It is a work of philosophy, anthropology and sociology as much as one of economics. However, it has several important statements: * The Law of Value Capitalist production is the production of â€Å"an immense multitude of commodities† or generalised commodity production. A commodity has two essential qualities firstly, they are useful, they satisfy some human want, â€Å"the nature of such wants, whether, for instance, they spring from the stomach or from fancy, makes no difference,† and secondly they are sold on a market or exchanged. Critically the exchange value of a commodity â€Å"is independent of the amount of labour required to appropriate its useful qualities.† But rather depends on the amount of socially necessary labour required to produce it. All commodities are sold at their value, so the origin of the capitalist profit is not in cheating or theft but in the fact that the cost of reproduction of labour power, or the workers wage, is less than the value created during their time at work, enabling the capitalists to yield a surplus value or profit on their investments. * Historical Property Relations Historical capitalism represents a process of momentous social upheaval where rural masses were separated from the land and ownership of the means of production by force, deprivation, and legal manipulation, creating an urban proletariat based on the institution of wage-labour. Moreover, capitalist property relations aggravated the artificial separation between city and country, which is a key factor in accounting for the metabolic rift between human beings in capitalism and their natural environment, which is at the root of our current ecological dilemmas. * Commodity Fetishism Marx adapted previous value-theory to show that in capitalism phenomena involved with the price system (markets, competition, supply and demand) constitute a powerful ideology that obscures the underlying social relations of capitalist society. Commodity fetishism refers to this distortion of appearance. The underlying social reality is one of economic exploitation. * Economic Exploitation Workers are the fundamental creative source of new value. Property relations affording the right of usufruct and despotic control of the workplace to capitalists are the devices by which the surplus value created by workers is appropriated by the capitalists. * Accumulation Inherent to capitalism is the incessant drive to accumulate as a response to the competitive forces acting upon all capitalists. In such a context the accumulated wealth which is the source of the capitalists social power derives itself from being able to repeat the circuit of MoneyCommodityMoney, where the capitalist receives an increment or surplus value higher than their initial investment, as rapidly and efficiently as possible. Moreover this driving imperative leads capitalism to its expansion on a worldwide scale. * Crises Marx identified natural and historically specific (i.e. structural) barriers to accumulation that were interrelated and interpenetrated one another in times of crises. Different types of crises, such as realization crises and overproduction crises, are expressions of capitalisms inability to constructively overcome such barriers. Moreover, the upshot of crises is increased centralization, the expropriation of the many capitalists by the few. * Centralization The interacting forces of competition, endemic crises, intensive and extensive expansion of the scale of production, and a growing interdependency with the state apparatus, all promote a strong developmental tendency towards the centralization of capital. * Material Development As a result of its constant drive to optimize profitability by increasing the productivity of labour, typically by revolutionizing technology and production techniques, capitalism develops so as to progressively reduce the objective need for work, suggesting the potential for a new era of creative forms of work and expanded scope for leisure. * Socialization, and the pre-conditions for Revolution By socializing the labour process, concentrating workers into urban settings in large-scale production processes and linking them in a worldwide market, the agents of a potential revolutionary change are created. Thus Marx felt that in the course of its development capitalism was at the same time developing the preconditions for its own negation. However, although the objective conditions for change are generated by the capitalist system itself, the subjective conditions for social revolution can only come about through the apprehension of the objective circumstances by the agents themselves and the transformation of such understanding into an effective revolutionary program Anarchist economics Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economics and economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism. Pierre Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought that originates in the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value that holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility. Receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury. Collectivist anarchism (also known as anarcho-collectivism) is a revolutionary doctrine that advocates the abolition of the state and private ownership of the means of production. Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. Once collectivization takes place, workers salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market. Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International, and the early Spanish anarchist movement. The Conquest of Bread by Peter Kropotkin, influential work which presents the economic vision ofanarcho-communism Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: from each according to ability, to each according to need. Unlike mutualism, collectivist anarchism and marxism, anarcho-communism as defended by Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta rejected the labor theory of value altogether, instead advocating a gift economy and to base distribution on need. Anarchist communism as a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunins death. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarchist communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the collectivist label then became more commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism. After Marx Marxs work sharpened the existing differences between the revolutionary and non-revolutionary socialists. Non-revolutionary socialists took inspiration from the work of John Stuart Mill, and later Keynes and the Keynesians, who provided theoretical justification for (potentially very extensive) state involvement in an existing market economy. According to the Keynesians, if the business cycle could be solved by national ownership of key industries and state direction of their investment, class antagonism would be effectively tamed a compact would be formed between labour and the capitalists. There would be no need for revolution; instead Keynes looked to the eventual euthanasia of the rentier sometime in the far future. Joan Robinson and Michael Kalecki employed Keynesian insights to form the basis of a critical post-Keynesian economics that at times went well beyond liberal reformism. Many original socialist economic ideas would also emerge out of the trade union movement In the wake of Marx, Marxist economists developed many different, sometimes contradictory tendencies. Some of these tendencies were based on internal disputes about the meaning of some of Marxs ideas, including the Law of Value and his crisis theory. Other variations were elaborations that subsequent theorists made in light of real world developments. For example the monopoly capitalist school saw Paul A. Baran and Paul Sweezy attempt to modify Marxs theory of capitalist development, which was based upon the assumption of price competition, to reflect the evolution to a stage where both economy and state were subject to the dominating influence of giant corporations. World-systems analysis, would restate Marxs ideas about the worldwide division of labour and the drive to accumulate from the holistic perspective of capitalisms historical development as a global system. Accordingly, Immanuel Wallerstein, writing in 1979, maintained that There are today no socialist systems in the world-economy any more than there are feudal systems because there is only one world-system. It is a world-economy and it is by definition capitalist in form. Socialism involves the creation of a new kind of world-system, neither a redistributive world-empire nor a capitalist world-economy but a socialist world-government. I dont see this projection as being in the least utopian but I also dont feel its institution is imminent. It will be the outcome of a long social struggle in forms that may be familiar and perhaps in very few forms, that will take place in all the areas of the world-economy. Meanwhile other notable strands of reformist and revolutionary socialist economics sprung up that were either only loosely associated with Marxism or wholly independent. Thorsten Veblen is widely credited as the founder of critical institutionalism. His idiosyncratic theorizing included acidic critiques of the inefficiency of capitalism, monopolies, advertising, and the utility of conspicuous consumption. Some institutionalists have addressed the incentive problems experienced by the Soviet Union. Critical institutionalists have worked on the specification of incentive-compatible institutions, usually based on forms of participatory democracy, as a resolution superior to allocation by an autonomous market mechanism. Another key socialist, closely related to Marx, Keynes, and Gramsci, was Piero Sraffa. He mined classical political economy, particularly Ricardo, in an attempt to erect a value theory that was at the same time an explanation of the normal distribution of prices in an economy, as well that of income and economic growth. A key finding was that the net product or surplus in the sphere of production was determined by the balance of bargaining power between workers and capitalists, which was in turn subject to the influence of non-economic, presumably social and political factors.

Intentions of Alexander II and the Failure of the Emancipation of the S

Intentions of Alexander II and the Failure of the Emancipation of the Serfs In the 19th century it was estimated that about 50 per cent of the 40,000,000 peasants in Russia were serfs, who worked on the land and were owned by the Russian nobility, the Tsar and religious foundations. This had been true for centuries; in 1861, however, this was all changed when Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs and gave them freedom from ownership. Alexander's decision was based on many reasons, and did not have the desired consequences, for the serfs at least. Therefore, it is possible to question Alexander's motives for such large reform, which this essay will do and will also look at why the emancipation, which had been anticipated for so long, was such a failure. In the mid and late nineteenth century the whole of western Europe underwent immense change, both economically and socially, due to the industrial revolution. Factories, railways and industrial cities were built at an astonishing rate, and trade between countries became even more important as agriculture became less important. In order to survive as a strong power in this new economic and social climate, Russia needed to be able to compete in industrial terms with the rest of the world, particularly as it's agriculture was under threat already. Even though four-fifths of the population were peasants, a prosperous and thriving faming economy had never fully developed, party because of the land itself - much of Russia lay too far north to have soil good enough for either crop-growing or cattle-rearing. From 1840 onwards, the need for serious reform became apparent to the Tsar ... ...of the Emancipation Act show that the real needs and wants of the serfs were not properly considered, and, although he probably believed that what he was doing was right for Russia, Alexander's reforms were based more on his fear of uprising and his vision of an industrialised Russia. Emancipation failed, therefore, because Alexander II forced a freedom onto the serfs that they were neither prepared for nor welcoming of. Bibliography www.spartacus.schoolsnet.co.uk www.pvhs.chico.k12.ca.us Access to History, Reaction and Revolutions: Russia 1881-1924 Michael Lynch (2000) Challenging History: Europe 1890-1990 [1] Michael Lynch, Russian 1881-1924 (2000) p. 10 [2] E Acton, Russia, p.75 (1986) [3] Russell Sherman, Russia 1815-81 (1992) p. 58 [4] Jake Axel, www.webserver.rcds.rye.ny.us

How My Childhood Experience Have Shaped Me to What I Am Today Essay

When I recall my childhood memories, there are many stories. Childhood is special for everyone. My childhood memories have shaped me into the person I am today. There are many different childhood memories that I can remember that really made an impact on how my personality is today. Some of memories make me happy, but others make me grow up. The memories that made my growing happened when I was about 6 years old and my mom used to take me swimming as she sat nearby and I swam in the evenings. One day for some reason I can’t recall she wasn’t there, nor were there any guards. I was swimming in the shallow, and God knows why, I moved over to the deep. You can imagine I was a little kid . Suddenly I lost grip and began to drown. But I didn’t resist. I just kept sinking till I had reached the bottom and after 10 seconds I felt myself suffocating. But I still remained perfectly still This 18 years old girl came out of nowhere, I have no idea how she figured out (I never knew her), she pulled me up and asked me if I was okay. I was choking and later I began bleeding from the nose, another Lady took me to the toilet to wash my nose. And this unidentified girl left, never to be seen again. It’s hard to explain, but trust me I would have died that day. And no one would have noticed. She left, and I could never thank her. I was too young to even comprehend the severity of the casualty I was leading myself into. I still remember her, and it’s like this memory is a part of me. I have been grateful to people ever since and made my loved ones realize how much they mean to me from time to time. There’s nothing more tragic than losing someone you never got to thank or tell how much you value them. Until now i already grow up but i still remember about this childhood experience, and this memories keep remind me don’t let death and separation to guilt and regrets, just make the best use of time you have. I’ll cherish everything the childhood experience taught me and shaped me who I am now.

Compare wong’s pragmatic classroom kagan kyle and scott win win discipline and morrish’s real discipline Essay

Clear guidelines on how to prepare are defined for each time of the day. Procedures are divided into periods to facilitate implementation in class. Teachers are also directed on preparation in the summer before classes start for the year. Procedures will stay the same this reduces behavior problems and keeps the focus on learning and educating. Teachers understand the boundaries of their control; the teacher can focus on being proactive to prevent problems rather than wasting time reacting to problems she could anticipate. Any teacher can implement the theory of the practical classroom without concern for over- or under-reaching with students. students’ accomplishments are pretentious by the procedures used. †¢ This philosophy has a solid positions that are shared with the students †¢ A Comparison of Discipline Models Wong’s Pragmatic Classroom Kagan, Kyle, and Scott’s win-win discipline Morrish’s Real Discipline Compare and Contrast †¢ Students are given the choose to what they feel is good for them to do. †¢ Students, teacher and parents are involved in the rule making. †¢ Help students understand each other’s responsibilities along with what the teacher’s responsibilities are. †¢ Discipline is something that the win-win problem does not do to students. †¢ Corrects the situation, which allows the students to come up better actions, which will result in acceptable behavior. †¢ According to Morrish’s real discipline children can only learn SELF DISCIPLINE through experience. †¢ Morrish further states that when children enter school they do not have the knowledge on behaving properly. †¢ With the Three theories they all have the similarity that the teachers and students are involved in the learning process of the required discipline. Strengths †¢ Students, Teachers and parents all work together to establish the rules to have a better school experience. †¢ Teachers help students behave which is acceptable behavior to their teacher. †¢ Win-win discipline is to help students develop log-term, self-managed responsibility. †¢ Morrish rewards occasionally the students for behaving correctly. †¢ Morrish gives students courage that they may not have when working through issues that are sensitive. †¢Weakness †¢ There is too much compromise between teacher and student when establishing the classroom rules. †¢ Teachers are too limited on what they can do to prevent disruptions. †¢ The program is most effective if it is implemented from the first day of school until the last day of school. †¢ Morrish overstates the role of the teacher. â€Å"The because I said so† response. †¢ Morrish believes that teachers who praise children to build up their self-esteem actually do more harm than good. †¢ Morris is against giving students the freedom to choose

Street Gangstas essays

Street Gangstas essays Anotha sucka dead, L.A. Times front page. This is a quote from a well known rapper, Easy-E, of the grout NWA. He often claimed to be a gang member from the city of Compton. He had a history of being a drug dealer also. Easy-E and the rest of his group let the world know what a gang member does through lyrics similar to the example given. Proclaiming to be gang members, NWA painted a detailed picture of the street gang subculture lifestyle. Street gangs are a problem to many communities across the globe. Gang members, also known as street thugs, are infamous for the various crimes they commit; crimes that range from murder to petty theft. There are gangs that try to spread as far as possible and there are gangs that stay local in their local area. The gangs that try to extend their territorial control behave as a mafia would. Acts such as having international connections is one way they act like a mafia. The local gangs are a smaller group that is interested only in that area . Nevertheless, minute gangs and gangs with a vast amount of members share characteristics of their lifestyle. The attitudes of street gangs do not have much variance between each other. One feature that most members of a street gang try to impose is toughness. Many of them start off by getting jumped in the gang. This means that several members beat up the individual that wants to be in their gang. Members are usually in groups showing unity and strength. They try to show this to others, as a form of intimidation. Another characteristic that shows a street gangs mind-set is the recruiting of individuals within the same race. More times than not, gangs are racially motivated. They protect their territory from other gangs but may have a truce with a gang of the same race in order to only worry about gangsters of a different ethnicity. The outlook of not caring is the last trait seen in many gangs. They see nothing going well fo...

Computer forensics and investigations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Computer forensics and investigations - Essay Example After identifying the risks, the paper goes on to name an example of legislation, which can be used against the company, in this case the Cookie law. Finally, the employee contract at the company needs to be studied with the aim of making a prospective employee be aware of these risks and know how to manage them without claiming ignorance. Question # 1 Forensic Readiness Planning Business Continuity Planning, and Their Testing Both forensic readiness planning and business continuity planning help a company in dealing with the effects of interruptions to their operations. Business continuity planning identifies the exposure of an organization to external and internal threats while synthesizing soft and hard assets to give the organization effective protection and recovery from these threats (Nelson, 2012, p. 23). It does this while maintaining the organization’s value system integrity and competitive advantage. A BCP acts as a roadmap on how to continue operations under adverse conditions. Forensic readiness planning, on the other hand, involves enabling an organization to have digital evidence available before the occurrence of an incident. Since digital evidence could be requested at any time in support of a formal process, an organization needs to have access to all evidence that supports its position in case such an occurrence takes place. While BCP encompasses an extensive range of threats to the organization’s operations, FRP is mainly concerned with the threat brought about by formal requests for digital evidence. An organization requires both an FRP and a BCP because they offer slightly different forms of protection to the company, both of which are vital and interdependent. Business continuity planning involves the development of a practical plan detailing how the organization will prepare for, while continuing to operate, a crisis or incident. The plan aids the organization to identify preventable risks, prepare for risks beyond its contr ol, and respond to the occurrence of a risk. Forensic readiness planning deals specifically with the availability of the organization’s digital data if needed as evidence. It allows for the gathering of admissible evidence in a legal manner that does not interfere with business operations. FRP specifically prepares the organization for legal battles that may involve its digital data by gathering evidence on potential disputes and crimes that may impact it (Nelson, 2012, p. 25). Having both an FRP and a BCP increases the sense of security among the organization’s clients, personnel, suppliers, partners, investors, and vendors. When an organization plans for the occurrence of risks, these stakeholders can carry on with their duties with a sense of security. Planning allows the organization to consider the effects of interruptions to its operations while making priorities for the recovery process. It also helps the personnel learn what to do when interruption occurs, in o rder to minimize data loss and disruption. An organization’s FRP and BCP need to be tested often in order to enforce them and make adjustments. Most companies that practice these plans conduct bi-annual tests on them during which a mock ‘drill’ is performed for a specific risk. Over time, personnel may change, and the new staff requires to be initiated. Old staff also needs to be re-informed on the plans once in a while, with the most excellent method to do this being to visualize

PROJECT 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

PROJECT 2 - Essay Example By so doing, it gives the rationale for the alternative methodology in doing this kind of research (Donald, 2010).  The journal is supported by some others on the topic. This research is, therefore, one of the best materials available in action research. It is because it gives more information on action research and the steps that can be followed when carrying out a comprehensive research are also outlined. Kitchen, J., & Stevens, D. (2014). Action research in teacher education: two teacher-educators practice action research as they introduce action research to pre-service teachers. Action Research, 23(3): 7-28.    The article analyses some of the qualitative techniques that are dependent on different forms of discourse analysis. By analyzing the different methods which depend on analysis of the spoken or written language, the journal examines the relevance of discourse analysis, while looking at qualitative techniques (Kitchen & Stevens, 2014). It entails the examination and analysis of different methods and plays an important role in the discourse analysis, which is a significant in the process of action research. Sample methods used in the analysis of the spoken or written language are discussed in the paper. By reading this article, the reader gets more information on discourse analysis. As such, he or she will be in a position to carry out the process without difficulty. Some attributes of the traditional empirical-research have not been taken seriously by various scholars. This article recognizes the advantages and the disadvantages of traditional research (Peters, 2014). By looking at the disadvantages of this type of research, the article seeks to discover the contradictions which may exist in the research methods (Peters, 2014).It comes up with the conclusion that this type of research has its individual extortions to potency. The paper therefore gets rid of the contradictions that may